Employing Patriotism and Nationalism in Destination Crisis Communication Strategy for the Pandemic

Main Article Content

Suwadee Talawanich
Arinya Pongwat

Abstract

This research primarily aims to investigate the implementation of patriotism and nationalism crisis communication strategies when destination marketers wish to attract domestic tourists to resume their travel consumption following the COVID-19 pandemic. The focal point of the investigation is to explain the mechanisms occurring in potential domestic tourists after communication via this strategy. The research objectives were set to test the causal relationships among destination reputation, trust, intentions to conduct secondary crisis communication, and visit intentions. Data were gathered from 546 potential Thai tourists via a survey questionnaire, with Phuket, Thailand, selected as the crisis scenario. Findings were analyzed via structural equation modeling and suggest that only trust positively impacts intentions to conduct secondary crisis communication. In contrast, visit intentions were positively affected by multiple influential factors (i.e., destination reputation, trust, and intentions to conduct secondary crisis communication). The findings yield suggestions on how to design and enhance the patriotism and nationalism messages to ensure a high level of visit intentions and intentions to conduct secondary crisis communication, for concerned practitioners who are responsible for destination marketing in the post-pandemic time when domestic tourists have become one of the primary and crucial target customers. 

Article Details

Section
Articles

References

Abubakar, A. M., & Ilkan, M. (2016). Impact of online WOM on destination trust and intention to travel: A medical tourism perspective. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5(3), 192-201.

Adler-Nissen, R. (2014). Stigma management in international relations: Transgressive identities, norms, and order in international society. International Organization, 68(1), 143–176.

Adobe Express. (2022). Your guide to social media engagement rates.: Learn target engagement rates for Facebook, LinkedIn, Instagram, and Twitter. https://www.adobe.com/express/learn/blog/what-is-a-good-social-media-engagement-rate

Armstrong, E., & Ritchie, B. (2008). The heart recovery marketing campaign. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23(2–4), 175–189.

Arbulú, I., Razumova, M., Rey-Maquieira, J., & Sastre, F. (2021). Can domestic tourism relieve the COVID-19 tourist industry crisis? The case of Spain. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 20, 100568.

Artigas, E. M., Vilches-Montero, S., & Chasco Yrigoyen, C. (2015). Antecedents of tourism destination reputation: The mediating role of familiarity. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 26, 147–152.

Avraham, E. (2021a). From 9/11 through Katrina to Covid-19: Crisis recovery campaigns for American destinations. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(20), 2875-2889.

Avraham, E. (2021b). Recovery strategies and marketing campaigns for global destinations in response to the Covid-19 tourism crisis. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 26(11), 1255-1269.

Avraham, E., & Beirman, D. (2022). From SARS through Zika and up to Covid-19: Destination recovery marketing campaigns in response to pandemics. Annals of Leisure Research, 1-22.

Avraham, E., & Ketter, E. (2008). Media strategies for marketing places in crisis: improving the image of cities, countries, and tourist destinations. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.

Avraham, E., & Ketter, E. (2017). Destination image repair while combatting crises: Tourism marketing in Africa. Tourism Geographies, 19(5), 780-800.

Baalbaki, J., & Zizka, L. (2023). Egyptian crises and destination brand image: the resurrection of the mummy. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-19.

Balabanis, G., Diamantopoulos, A., Mueller, R. D., & Melewar, T. C. (2001). The impact of nationalism, patriotism and internationalism on consumer ethnocentric tenden-cies. Journal of international business studies, 32, 157-175.

Beirman, D. (2003). Restoring tourism destinations in crisis. Okon, UK: Cabi Publishing.

Beirman, D., & Van Walbeek, B. (2011). Bounce back: Tourism risk, crisis and recovery management guide. The Pacific Asia Travel Association, 1568-1593.

Benoit, W. L. (1995). Accounts, Excuses, and Apologies: A Theory of Image Restoration Strategies. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Business Victoria. (2021). Recovery marketing and communications. https://business.vic.gov.au/business-information/tourism-industry-resources/tourism-crisis-management-guide/recover/recovery-marketing-and-communications

Carlsen, J. C., & Hughes, M. (2008). Tourism market recovery in the Maldives after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23(2-4), 139-149.

Carroll, C. E., Huang-Horowitz, N. C., McKeever, B. W., & Williams, N. (2014). Key messages and message integrity as concepts and metrics in communication evaluation. Journal of Communication Management, 18(4), 386-401.

Chen, R., & Sakamoto, Y. (2013). Perspective matters: Sharing of crisis information in social media. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2033–2041.

Cheung, M. Y., Luo, C., Sia, C. L., & Chen, H. (2009). Credibility of electronic word-of-mouth: Informational and normative determinants of on-line consumer recommenda-tions. International journal of electronic commerce, 13(4), 9-38.

Coombs, W. T. (1999). Ongoing crisis communication: planning, managing, and responding (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Coombs, W. T. (2014). Ongoing crisis communication: planning, managing, and responding (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2002). Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets: Initial tests of the situational crisis communication theory. Management communica-tion quarterly, 16(2), 165-186.

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, J. S. (2012). The paracrisis: The challenges created by publicly managing crisis prevention. Public Relations Review, 38(3), 408–415.

Corrêa, S. C. H., & Gosling, M. de S. (2021). Travelers’ Perception of Smart Tourism Experiences in Smart Tourism Destinations. Tourism Planning and Development, 18(4), 415–434.

Crouch, G. I., & Weber, K. (2014, May). Marketing of convention tourism. In Convention tourism (pp. 57-78). Routledge.

Darwish, A., & Burns, P. (2019). Tourist destination reputation: an empirical definition. Tourism Recreation Research, 44(2), 153–162.

Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319.

Dolnicar, S., & Ring, A. (2014). Tourism marketing research: Past, present and future. Annals of Tourism Research, 47, 31–47. Druckman, D. (1994). Nationalism, patriotism, and group loyalty: A social psychological perspective. Mershon international studies review, 38(Supplement_1), 43-68.

Du Rand, G. E., Heath, E., & Alberts, N. (2013). The role of local and regional food in destination marketing: A South African situation analysis. In Wine, food, and tourism marketing (pp. 97-112). Routledge.

Ebrahim, R. S. (2020). The Role of Trust in Understanding the Impact of Social Media Marketing on Brand Equity and Brand Loyalty. Journal of Relationship Marketing, 19(4), 287–308.

Elbe, J., Hallén, L., & Axelsson, B. (2009). The destination‐management organisation and the integrative destination‐marketing process. International journal of tourism research, 11(3), 283-296.

Engemann, K. M. (2020). How Does the COVID-19 Crisis Differ from Other Shocks to the Economy?. https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2020/may/how-does-covid19-crisis -differ-other-shocks-economy

Eriksson, M. (2018). Lessons for Crisis Communication on Social Media: A Systematic Review of What Research Tells the Practice. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(5), 526–551.

Fakfare, P., Talawanich, S., & Wattanacharoensil, W. (2020). A scale development and validation on domestic tourists’ motivation: the case of second-tier tourism destinations. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 25(5), 489–504.

Falk, R. F., & Miller, N. B. (1992). A primer for soft modeling. University of Akron Press.

Filieri, R., Alguezaui, S., & Mcleay, F. (2015). Why do travelers trust TripAdvisor? Antecedents of trust towards consumer-generated media and its influence on recommendation adoption and word of mouth. Tourism Management, 51, 174–185.

Freire, J. R. (2011). Destination brands: Managing place reputation. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7(4), 316-320.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobserved variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39e50.

Gaffar, V., Tjahjono, B., Abdullah, T., & Sukmayadi, V. (2022). Like, tag and share: bolstering social media marketing to improve intention to visit a nature-based tourism destination. Tourism Review, 77(2), 451–470.

Glaesser, D. (2006). Crisis management in the tourism industry. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Gohary, A., Shah, A., & Chan, E. Y. (2022). Do political actions affect country image and travel intentions? The case of COVID-19. Tourism Recreation Research, 1-14.

Golembiewski, R. T., & McConkie, M. (1975). The centrality of interpersonal trust in group processes. Theories of group processes, 131(1), 131-185.

Green Network Thailand. (2022). โครงการ “เราเที่ยวด้วยกัน” Better Thailand เที่ยวไทย ช่วยไทย ไปต่อด้วยกัน (“We travel together” campaign, Better Thailand, Travel in Thailand, Support Thais, Continue the journey together.). https://www.greennetworkthailand.com/better-thailand/

Hair, J., Black, W. C., Rabin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). HAIR_Multivariate Data Analysis 7th Edition.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate Data Analysis. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Haruta, A., & Hallahan, K. (2003). Cultural issues in airline crisis communications: A Japan‐US comparative study. Asian Journal of Communication, 13(2), 122-150.

Hassan, S. B., & Soliman, M. (2021). COVID-19 and repeat visitation: Assessing the role of destination social responsibility, destination reputation, holidaymakers’ trust and fear arousal. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 19(September 2020), 100495.

Hayes, R. A., & Carr, C. T. (2015). Does being social matter? Effects of enabled commenting on credibility and brand attitude in social media. Journal of Promotion Manage-ment, 21(3), 371-390.

Heermann, P. D., & Pavlakos, C. (2005). 25 Desktop Delivery: Access to Large Datasets. The Visualization Handbook, 493.

Hede, A. M. (2005). Sports-events, tourism and destination marketing strategies: an Australian case study of Athens 2004 and its media telecast. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 10(3), 187-200.

Hoerger, M. (2010). Participant dropout as a function of survey length in Internet-mediated university studies: Implications for study design and voluntary participation in psychological research. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 13(6), 697-700.

Hox, J. J., & Bechger, T. M. (2007). An Introduction to Structural Equation Modeling 1. Family Science Review, 11, 354–373.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55.

Ip, C., Lee, H., & Law, R. (2012). Profiling the users of travel websites for planning and online experience sharing. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(3), 418-426.

Jullapan, P. (2021). ‘‘ ‘ททท.’ เปิดโครงการ ‘Unseen New Series’ จัดโปรฯ ‘น้ำใจ ไทย ช่วย ไทย’ ซื้อ ก่อน เที่ยว ทีหลัง! (Tourism Authority of Thailand launches the project of ‘Unseen New Series’ offering the promotional campaign of ‘Show your support Showing your support through ‘Thais support Thais)’’. Bangkok Biz News, 19 August. https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/business/955674

Kumar, A., Bezawada, R., Rishika, R., Janakiraman, R., & Kannan, P. K. (2016). From social to sale: The effects of firm-generated content in social media on customer behavior. Journal of marketing, 80(1), 7-25.

Kathuria, S., Tandon, U., Ertz, M., & Bansal, H. (2020). Social vacation: Proposition of a model to understand tourists’ usage of social media for travel planning. Technology in Society, 63(June), 101438.

Kelly, L. (2023). It’s official: this is the world’s most overcrowded tourist destination: The Thai island of Phuket hosts a whopping 118 tourists for every local resident. https://www.timeout.com/news/its-official-this-is-the-worlds-most-overcrowded-tourist-destination-091923

Khanthavit, A. (2020). World and national stock market reactions to COVID-19. ABAC Journal, 40(2).

Kosterman, R., & Feshbach, S. (1989). Toward a measure of patriotic and nationalistic attitudes. Political psychology, 257-274.

Kim, D. J., Ferrin, D. L., & Rao, H. R. (2008). A trust-based consumer decision-making model in electronic commerce: The role of trust, perceived risk, and their antecedents. Decision Support Systems, 44(2), 544–564.

Lehto, X., Douglas, A. C., & Park, J. (2008). Mediating the effects of natural disasters on travel intention. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23(2-4), 29-43.

Leruksa, C., Sathatip, P., & Meeprom, S. (2023). Beyond Factors: IGSCA-SEM’s Application in the Context of Cannabis Tourism. Special Issue-Application of Structural Equation Modeling in Business, Sport, Tourism, Recreation, Education, and Language Studies, 43(4).

Luo, Q., & Zhai, X. (2017). “I will never go to Hong Kong again!” How the secondary crisis communication of “Occupy Central” on Weibo shifted to a tourism boycott. Tourism Management, 62, 159–172.

Luque‐Martínez, T., Ibáñez‐Zapata, J. A., & del Barrio‐García, S. (2000). Consumer ethnocentrism measurement‐An assessment of the reliability and validity of the CETSCALE in Spain. European Journal of marketing, 34(11/12), 1353-1374.

Mackey, S. (2015). Theorising and practising public relations crisis maangement. In M. Sheehan & D. Quinn-Allan (Eds.), Crisis communication in a digital world (pp. 12-28). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

Manager Online News. (2021), “ “ภูเก็ต” มาแรงรับเปิดเกาะ คว้าแชมป์ที่เที่ยวยอดฮิตในประเทศ (Phuket with its top performance due to its opening after the COVID-19 pandemic, is ranked the first among the most popular domestic destinations)”. Manager Online News, 26 September. https://mgronline.com/travel/detail/9640000063764

Marinao, E., Chasco, C., & Torres, E. (2012). Trust in tourist destinations. The role of local inhabitants and institutions. Academia Revista Latinoamericana de Administracion, 51.

Marsh, H. W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First- and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Physical Bullatin, 97(3), 562–582.

Meier-Pesti, K., & Kirchler, E. (2003). Nationalism and patriotism as determinants of European identity and attitudes towards the euro. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 32(6), 685-700.

Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., & Medders, R. B. (2010). Social and heuristic approaches to credibility evaluation online. Journal of communication, 60(3), 413-439.

Muralidharan, S., & Men, L. R. (2015). How peer communication and engagement motivations influence social media shopping behavior: Evidence from China and the United States. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(10), 595-601.

Molinillo, S., Liébana-Cabanillas, F., Anaya-Sánchez, R., & Buhalis, D. (2018). DMO online platforms: Image and intention to visit. Tourism Management, 65, 116–130.

Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Pace, S., Balboni, B., & Gistri, G. (2014). The effects of social media on brand attitude and WOM during a brand crisis: Evidences from the Barilla case. Journal of Marketing Communications, 7266(July 2015), 1–14.

Pop, R. A., Săplăcan, Z., Dabija, D. C., & Alt, M. A. (2022). The impact of social media influencers on travel decisions: the role of trust in consumer decision journey. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(5), 823–843.

Rita, P. (2000). Tourism in the European Union. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(7), 434-436.

Ritchie, B. W., Dorrell, H., Miller, D., & Miller, G. A. (2004). Crisis communication and recovery for the tourism industry: Lessons from the 2001 foot and mouth disease outbreak in the United Kingdom. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 15(2-3), 199-216.

Ru-zhe, J., Aujirapongpan, S., Phetvaroon, K., & Agmapisarn, C. (2023). Why Should Hotels Become More Environmentally Friendly? Does Gender Matter in Customer Feedback?. ABAC Journal, 43(4).

Santos, S., Gonçalves, H. M., & Teles, M. (2023). Social media engagement and real‐time marketing: Using net‐effects and set‐theoretic approaches to understand audience and content‐related effects. Psychology & Marketing, 40(3), 497-515.

Schuldt, M. (2022). How Smart Destination Marketing Can Bolster A City’s Tourism—And Its Real Estate Market. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2022/09 /07/how-smart-destination-marketing-can-bolster-a-citys-tourism-and-its-real-estate-market/?sh=ed0a9852c079

Schultz, F., Utz, S., & Göritz, A. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis communication via twitter, blogs and traditional media. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 20–27.

Sidanius, J., Feshbach, S., Levin, S., & Pratto, F. (1997). The interface between ethnic and national attachment: Ethnic pluralism or ethnic dominance? The Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(1), 102-133.

Sjouwerman, S. (2021). Should you start with pr or marketing first? https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/365959#:~:text=In%20contrast%2C%20marketing%20is%20about,and%20entices%20customers%20to%20buy

Statista. (2023). Phuket - statistics & facts. https://www.statista.com/topics/10978/phuket/

Su, L., Huang, S. (Sam), van der Veen, R., & Chen, X. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility, Corporate Reputation, Customer Emotions and Behavioral Intentions: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis. Journal of China Tourism Research, 10(4), 511–529.

Su, L., Swanson, S. R., & Chen, X. (2018). Reputation, subjective well-being, and environmental responsibility: the role of satisfaction and identification. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(8), 1344–1361.

Su, L., Yang, Q., Swanson, S. R., & Chen, N. C. (2022). The impact of online reviews on destination trust and travel intention: The moderating role of online review trustworthiness. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 28(4), 406–423.

Taecharungroj, V., & Avraham, E. (2022). From tsunami through terror attacks to Covid-19: Crisis communication strategies and recovery campaigns to combat Thailand’s tourism crises. Asian Journal of Communication, 32(1), 41-64.

Talamantes, A. (2020). “Phuket ‘goes local’ amid COVID-19 tourism slump”. Asia Nikkei, 9 December. https://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Life/Phuket-goes-local-amid-COVID-19-tourism-slump

Talawanich, S., & Pongwat, A. (2023). Post-pandemic crisis communication strategy for the domestic market of Thai urban beach city. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 27(10), 1095-1125.

Thaicharoen, S., Meunrat, S., Leng-Ee, W., Koyadun, S., Ronnasiri, N., Iamsirithaworn, S., Chaifoo, W., Tulalamba, W., & Viprakasit, V. (2023). How Thailand’s tourism industry coped with COVID-19 pandemics: a lesson from the pilot Phuket Tourism Sandbox project. Journal of Travel Medicine, 30(5), taac151.

UNWTO (World Tourism Organization). (2005). Evolution of tourism in the tsunami-affected destinations. TF2/MKT Report, Madrid.

UNWTO (World Tourism Organization). (2020). Tourism and Covid-19 – Unprecedented Economic Impacts. Available at https://www.unwto.org/tourism-and-covid-19-unprecedented-economic-impacts (accessed 1 August 2023)

Utz, S., Schultz, F., & Glocka, S. (2013). Crisis communication online: How medium, crisis type and emotions affected public reactions in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Public Relations Review, 39, 40–46.

Walters, G., & Mair, J. (2012). The effectiveness of post-disaster recovery marketing messages—The case of the 2009 Australian bushfires. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 29(1), 87-103.

Wasswa, H. W. (2017). Selling nationalism: Influence of patriotic advertising on consumer ethnocentrism in Kenya. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 2(8), 94-105.

We Are Social. (2023). Digital 2023 Global Overview Report. https://wearesocial.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Digital-2023-Global-Overview-Report.pdf

Wu, C. W. (2015). Foreign tourists’ intentions in visiting leisure farms. Journal of Business Research, 68(4), 757–762.

Xiaolong, M., Litian, Z., Lu, Y., & Rong, W. (2023). Tourist ethnocentrism and tourism intentions during a political crisis. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 21(1), 71-93.

Yang, X., & Wang, D. (2015). The exploration of social media marketing strategies of destination marketing organizations in China. Journal of China Tourism Research, 11(2), 166-185.

Zhai, X., Luo, Q., & Wang, L. (2020). Why tourists engage in online collective actions in times of crisis: Exploring the role of group relative deprivation. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 16(February), 1–11.

Zhang, C., Gao, J., & Ding, P. (2017). Impacts of haze on the intention to visit China of overseas tourists: based on destination image and risk perception theories. Tourism Tribune, 32(12), 58-67.

Zhang, X., Nekmat, E., & Chen, A. (2020). Crisis collective memory making on social media: A case study of three Chinese crises on Weibo. Public Relations Review, 46(4), 101960.